*This is the first of a series of two articles. The second one on Taiwan since 1875 will appear in the May issue.
To assess the culture of any region by tracing its various stages of cultural development offers a new field of research in the study of history and geography. This method of study, which divides history into different periods in terms of changes that have taken place in point of space, places dramatic emphasis on the close interplay between space and time. The history of human civilization may also be approached through the study of fossils imbedded in the different historical-geological strata. Consequently, the subject of geography is not unlike a stage that is equipped with different sets of scenary to set the mood for each act of a play. The same may be said of history. Each historical period is marked by its prominent people, its culture, its territory, and its center of gravity, constituting a cultural period different from any other. In studying the cultural history of Taiwan, it is the intention of the writer to divide the different historical periods according to the different cultural stages it has gone through, and to give to each of the periods enumerated the name of the locality where the activities of each period were centered, so that the cumulative cultural stages in the history of Taiwan may be seen in their proper perspectives. The history of Taiwan may be divided into the following periods: (1) The Penghu Period, (2) The Anping Period, (3) The Tainan Period, (4) The Lukang Period, (5) The Tamsui Period, (6) The Taipei Period, (7) The Taichung Period, (8) The Keelung Period, and (9) The Kaohsiung Period.
(1) The Penghu Period
The importance of the Penghu Islands straddling the Taiwan Channel as the gateway to Taiwan is substantiated by the fact that since ancient times, all those who have had designs on Taiwan have found it necessary first to take the Penghu Islands. To defend Taiwan, it is essential to hold the island chain.
The island chain is composed of 63 coral reefs with Makung as its center. The islands present an outline of low mounds, and are not, therefore, easily visible from the deck of a boat some distance off. The people on the islands are fishermen who look to the sea for their livelihood.
The first invasion of the Penghu Islands from the Chinese mainland dates back to 610 A. D., when General Chen Ling was ordered by Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty to take the islands. By the time of the Sung Dynasty, the port of Chuanchow in Fukien Province had become a center of foreign trade, and merchant ships regularly shuttled between the port of Chuanchow and Peikang, which is in the County of Chiayi opposite the Penghu Islands.
The Penghu Islands became a part of Chinese territory in the Yuan Dynasty. They were placed under the jurisdiction of Tungan Hsien in Fukien, and an inspector was assigned to the islands. Cheng Ho. the famous navigator who lived in the early part of the Ming Dynasty, landed at the southern part of Taiwan. In the middle of the Ming Dynasty, troops were stationed in the Penghu Islands to forestall Japanese invasion.
In 1624, Yen Sze-chi of Changchow and Cheng Tze-lung of Chuanchow, the father of Koxinga, occupied the Penghu Islands and Peikang with a force of several thousand ablebodied men recruited from Changchow and Chuanchow. A city wall was built round the city of Anping in the southern part of Taiwan.
When a severe drought occurred in Fukien in 1628, hundreds of thousands of refugees were shipped to Taiwan, marking the first wave of mass immigration to the island. At that time, Western power was expanding eastwards. Soon the Dutch wrested from Yen Sze-chi and Cheng Tze-lung territories under their uncertain control. The author has chosen to name this period the Penghu Period in view of the fact that even towards the close of the Ming Dynasty, relations between China and Taiwan were largely confined to the strategically important Penghu Islands. Except for Peikang and a few other seaports which had trade relations with the Chinese, the entire island of Taiwan was inhabited by aboriginal mountain-tribes.
The life of the Taiwan aborigines has undergone little change since the dawn of history. In 1675, a book on Taiwan and its aborigines was published at The Hague. According to this publication, the aborigines were possessed of a strong physique. The women were employed in farm work and weaving, while the men hunted with such primitive weapons as bows and arrows and knives and spears. The forests abounded in deer, and a certain amount of venison and deerskin was exported. Rice, the staple food, was also used for distilling wine. The people were, by nature, honest and law-abiding. They showed respect to the aged, treasured friendship and had a high regard for honor, so that crimes and acts of adultery were comparatively rare. The tribes, which were scattered and independent of one another, had a primitive form of self-government. When major decisions had to be made, a meeting of the villagers was called. The idea of class, social or otherwise, was unknown.
That the aborigines have made little progress is due to the fact that they have no system of writing, no books, and, therefore, no historical records. To study the ways of life of the aborigines, it is necessary, in the absence of written records, that the problem be approached from the archaeological, anthropological and racial angles.
The name of Taiwan, acquired in the Wan Li Era in the Ming Dynasty, was originally the name of an aboriginal mountain tribe in southern Taiwan. As more and more Chinese settled in Taiwan, this mountain tribe, still extant, moved on to Nan-Sze-Hsien brook, and later to Hsiu-Ku-Man brook. Many place names in Taiwan are direct translations from the tribal names. By the 16th Century, the island had come to be known to Europeans as Formosa, meaning "beautiful," a name first given by the Portuguese, who were greatly impressed by the lush beauty of the verdant island.
(2) The Anping Period
With the discovery of the North American continent, Western sea power rapidly expanded to the East. Macao was leased to the Portuguese; the Spaniards occupied Luzon, while the Dutch occupied Java. Taiwan was first discovered by Portuguese sailors in 1590. Close on the heels of the Portuguese came the Dutch and the Spaniards. Although numerically superior, the Chinese forces under Yen Sze-chi and Cheng Chi-lung proved no match for the Dutch and the Spaniards. At first, the southern part of the island was occupied by the Dutch, while the northern part was occupied by the Spaniards. Later on, the Dutch wrested control over the northern part of the island from the Spaniards, and enjoyed a period of supremacy that lasted more than 30 years.
In 1626 the Spaniards built a city which they called San Salvador where Keelung now stands. Two years later, they built another city, San Domingo, at Tamsui. But in 1642 both cities were captured by the Dutch, so that the 16-years domination exercised by Spain over the northern part of the island came to an end.
In 1602 and 1622, the Dutch twice attempted the capture of the Penghu Islands, but were driven back by the Chinese on both occasions. However, they gained a first foothold on Taiwan in 1624, when they requested the lease of certain trading posts scattered between the Penghu Islands and Anping. In 1630 the Dutch built Fort Zealandia at Anping. They erected gun emplacements to guard the harbor entrance, and stationed 2,800 troops there. Twenty years later, they built Fort Provincia in Tainan where Chi Kan Lou now stands. The 6-mile sea passage between the two forts was known as Taikiang. The outport of Lu Er Men is strategically placed to guard the harbor entrance. A consul, under the Governor General of Java, was assigned by the Dutch to look after their affairs in Taiwan.
By this time, the size of the Chinese population in Taiwan had swelled to 100,000, most of whom engaged in cultivating rice and sugarcane on land owned by the Dutch East India Company. The Dutch, who exported rice, sugar and deerskin from Taiwan thus acquired a leading position in the trade with the East.
The Dutch also sent missionaries to Taiwan to convert the mountain tribes. They built churches, and evolved a language used in Hsin Kang (between Tainan and Chiayi) by romanizing the tribal language. Specimens of this language may still be seen in the Taiwan Museum. The red-headed duck and many of the fruits in Taiwan, such as pineapples and mangoes, were originally brought in by the Dutch from Java.
After a rule of 38 years between 1624 and 1661, the Dutch, who treated the Chinese no better than slaves, were finally driven off the island by Koxinga. At the height of their sea power, the Dutch carried their trade as far as Fukien and Kwangtung in the west, Japan in the east and Java in the south. The port of Anping, after which this period is named, was one of the busiest seaports in the east at the time.
(3) The Tainan Period
Following the downfall of the Ming Dynasty, Koxinga banded the loyalists together in an attempt to revive the Dynasty. He first captured Nanking and then Taiwan which became his base of operations.
In 1661, with a force of 25,000 from Amoy, he captured the Penghu Islands from the Dutch, so Koxinga became a name to reckon with even in Europe. In recognition of his service, Emperor Yung Li conferred upon him the title of Duke of Yenping County. Unfortunately, he died at the early age of 39, less than 2 years after his conquest of Taiwan. He was succeeded by his son Cheng Tsin, while Chen Yung-hua, a native of Tungan Hsien, Fukien, acted as his regent. It was Chen Yung-hua's policy to strengthen his military position, and, at the same time, to bring a large measure of security to the people. In this, he succeeded so well that he has been compared with Chu-Kuh Liang, a revered statesman of the period of the Three Kingdoms. Cheng Tsin, who also died at an early age, was succeeded by Cheng Ke-Suang. The reign of the Cheng family lasted three generations totalling 23 years. All of them continued to reckon the years from the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, and called themselves the Chengs of the Ming Dynasty.
During their reign, Tainan, then known as Chen Tien County or Eastern Capital, was the government center with palaces and office buildings. This county was composed of two hsiens, Tien Hsing Hsien in the north and Wan Nien Hsien (now Fengshan) in the south. Military installations were erected at Anping, while defense forces were stationed at the Penghu Islands and Tamsui. Although a martinet for discipline, Koxinga adopted a paternal attitude towards the people. Swelled by hosts of loyalists from the coastal areas of Fukien and Kwangtung, the Chinese population in Taiwan soon reached 200,000.
During the reign of the Cheng family, a certain amount of land was allocated to each soldier who devoted part of his time to farming, so that not only was the land utilized to the fullest extent, but there was a plentiful supply of food for the army. Rice was exported to Chuanchow, Changchow and other places. Other exports included sugar and salt.
Although outside intercourse was strictly prohibited by the Emperors of the Ching Dynasty, Koxinga was able to defy the court order, sailing whither his fancy took him. Trading vessels from Taiwan went as far as Japan, the Philippines, Indo-China, Thailand and Java. Copper, used for the minting of coins, was imported from Japan.
By this time, over 800 officials from the Chinese mainland had come to Taiwan. They were all received with courtesy. A number of Confucian temples were erected and schools established. Assured of a decent livelihood, the people on the island achieved steady progress in learning. Towards the mountain tribes, Koxinga displayed firmness tempered with kindness.
According to Liu Hsien-ting, an eminent scholar who lived in the early Ching Dynasty, Koxinga's achievements overshadowed even those of Wen Tien-hsiang, a great statesman who lived at the close of the Sung Dynasty. With a handful of men, Koxinga, in defiance of the Ching emperors, was able to take Taiwan and prolong the Ming Dynasty for 40 years outside mainland China (reckoned from the time he brought together his band of loyalists at the age of 23). Had he lived long enough to launch a successful expedition to North China, it is more than probable that a new and different chapter in the history of China would have been written. Although his grandiose plans were put to naught by his premature death, the fact that Taiwan has become an integral part of China testifies to his greatness. A temple in Tainan erected in his memory remains a symbol of patriotism down to this day.
(4) The Lukang Period
More than anyone else, it was Admiral Sze Lang, a native of Tsinchiang, Fukien, who brought an end to the reign of the Cheng family in Taiwan early in the Ching Dynasty. In the month of April, 1680, he launched his first attack on Taiwan, but a storm at sea dispersed his fleet as soon as it was out in the channel. In the summer of 1683 he gathered a force of over 30,000, and, taking advantage of southerly winds, captured the Penghu Islands in June and Taiwan in August. The reign of the Cheng family in Taiwan was thus brought to a close.
Against the prevailing sentiment at court, Admiral Sze recommended the retention of Taiwan, pointing out the strategic importance of the island to the security of Kiangsu, Chekiang, Fukien and Kwangtung. His recommendation was so forcefully presented that the Emperor was won over. In 1684 a county administration, under the jurisdiction of the Fukien Provincial Government and the control of the Governor General of Fukien and Chekiang and the Inspector General of Fukien, was set up in Taiwan. A county administration was set up in what is now Tainan, which was composed of Taiwan Hsien and Fengshan Hsien in the south and Chu Lo (Chiayi) Hsien in the north.
In 1723 as land to the north gradually came under the plough, Changhua Hsien, an area to the north of Hu Wei Chi, in Chu Lo was added to the county. Furthermore, the Tamsui Bureau was set up in what is now Hsinchu north of Ta Chia Chi in Changhua. Five years later, the Penghu Bureau was added to the county administration.
All the places mentioned in the foregoing are situated on the coastal plain on the western side of the island. A start in the development of the eastern coast of the island was made by Wu Sa, a native of Changpu, Fukien, who settled down in Tou Wei (Tou Chen in Taipei Hsien) in 1796.
As immigrants streamed in, the Bureau of Ko Ma Lan, with jurisdiction over the territory stretching from San Tiao Lin to Su Ao, was set up in what is now I Lan. There were, therefore, altogether four hsiens and three bureaus under the Taiwan County Administration.
Acting as a link between the provincial and the county government was an intermediary organization known as the Taiwan-Amoy Military Administration, which had charge over military as well as civilian affairs. In 1727 this administration was split up into two separate units, one of which, the Taiwan Administration, with charge over local affairs, including educational and juridical matters, was set up in Taiwan.
In 1714 a survey, the first of its kind, was made of the island, and maps were made as part of a general survey of all Chinese territory. This work was undertaken by three French missionaries, including Regis. A glance at the map of China made at that time will give a good idea of the situation in China over 200 years ago.
During the Ching Dynasty, cultural development in Taiwan had a tendency to spread from south to north. The port of Lu Er Men is situated in the southern part of Taiwan. The port of Lukang, about 9 miles west of Changhua, and midway between the north and the south, enjoyed a prosperous trade. It is opposite Chuanchow, Fukien, 130 miles away, or one day's journey with a fair wind from the latter port. According to a contemporary poet, "Naval vessels glide like birds, while merchantmen shuttle back and forth," flooding Lukang with merchandise. It was during the Chien Lung and Chia Chin eras (1736-1820) that Lukang achieved its peak of prosperity. The period between the establishment of the Taiwan County Administration in 1683, and 1842, when the Treaty of Nanking provided for the opening of five treaty ports, has come to be known as the Lukang Period.
All the while, the descendants of Koxinga remained loyal to the Ming Dynasty and started periodic insurrections. One insurrection under Chu I-kwei occurred in 1721, followed by a more serious one led by Lin Suang-wen in 1786.
Taiwan was originally garrisoned by 14,000 land and naval forces from the mainland under a 3-year rotation plan. To put down the insurrection instigated by Lin Suang-wen, Fu Kangan, Governor General of Fukien and Chekiang, had to reinforce the local garrison by landing in Lukang 10,000 additional hand-picked troops from the four provinces of Szechwan, Hunan, Kweichow and Kwangtung.
Generally speaking, Taiwan enjoyed, at this time, a greater measure of security than the mainland. The productivity of the land contributed substantially towards the increase in population. In 1842 the population of Taiwan had reached the 2,500,000 mark, or 10 times the number at the beginning of the Ching Dynasty. Great strides were made in agriculture, irrigation work and ocean trade. In 1878 Sze Hsi-pang of Fengshan and Yang Chi-sen of Tainan put up large sums of money for the construction of irrigation and flood-control projects, giving a good start to the irrigation system of the island.
The chief exports from Taiwan included sugar and rice. The four counties of Fuchow, Hsingchow, Chuanchow and Changchow all had to import rice from Taiwan. Sugar from Taiwan was shipped to Peking and Tientsin in the north and Japan in the east. The larger ships, which carried loads up to six or seven thousand piculs, were able to go as far as Manchuria in the north and Kwangtung in the south. Through trade, the people enjoyed here as much prosperity and cultural attainment as anywhere on the mainland.
To attract able men from Taiwan, the Fukien provincial government reserved a certain number of seats in the examinations held in Fukien Province for candidates from Taiwan. In 1757 Wang Hsien-chieh passed the doctor's degree, becoming thus the first candidate from Taiwan to pass a national examination. He was the author of a widely-read poetic work on Taiwan.
Meanwhile, many distinguished men from the mainland came to Taiwan on official missions. Chao Yi, in the 18th century and Yao Ying in the 19th century both left their mark on the island. At this juncture, it is, perhaps, not out of place to recount a historical incident of some significance, for it was on August 10, 1769, that Wu Feng achieved martyrdom. A native of Chiayi, Wu Feng was not only a highly intelligent and educated man, but was also conversant with the aboriginal language. Although the mountain tribes had largely come under the influence of civilization, and used to pay their taxes in deerskin, they persisted in the custom of headhunting. Animated by a spirit of sacrifice, Wu Feng, at the age of 71, voluntarily made himself a victim of the native custom of headhunting. The mountain tribes were deeply touched when they discovered that they had killed their most beloved and respected friend, and henceforth swore off the local custom of headhunting. In commemoration of his martyrdom, the people showered honors on Wu Feng. He was deified as the god of Arisan. Temples were erected to perpetuate his memory. Full recognition of the greatness of Wu Feng was given by Shinbe Goto, one-time Chief of Civil Administration of the Office of the Japanese Governor General of Taiwan, when he credited the successful completion of the Arisan Railway through densely-forested areas to the earnest cooperation of the mountain tribes.
(5) The Tamsui Period
Fuchow was made a treaty port following the Opium War. The journey from Tamsui to Fuchow, a distance of 120 miles, took only 24 hours. When Fuchow became a treaty port, Tamsui acquired new significance as a trading center. It became a port of call for foreign ships as early as 1851. By 1861 when Tamsui and Keelung were officially made ports of call by the Treaty of Peking, Tamsui achieved new heights of prosperity. Foreign nationals from America and Europe began to flock to Taiwan, setting up consulates and trading companies, while foreign merchants congregated at the mouth of the Tamsui River. Thus Taiwan began to loom large in the world market. This period is accordingly called the Tamsui Period.
Although rice from Thailand and Indo-China, and sugar from Java and the Philippines offered Taiwan serious competition, Taiwan was able to hold its own. Besides rice and sugar, the chief exports from Taiwan included tea, camphor, indigo and coal, while the chief imports included textiles and petroleum. Tea was originally brought into Taiwan from An Chi in Fukien. At the early stage, most of the tea planters and workers hailed from An Chi. The tea trade was given a tremendous boost by large demands for tea from abroad following the opening of foreign trade. Tea and other export commodities were centered in the northern part of Taiwan. With the opening of Tamsui as a port of call, 70 to 80 per cent of the trade in Taiwan concentrated in the northern part of the island with the remaining 20 to 30 per cent scattered in the southern part of the island.
The economic prosperity that came with foreign trade resulted in the attainment of a higher level of culture. A garden in Panchiao, Taipei Hsien, acquired wide renown as a sort of literary salon. It was built in 1854. The owner, Lin Kuo-hua, a third-generation native of Taiwan, was well known for his hospitality and counted among his friends a large circle of distinguished scholars.